Appendix D

This extract from JCH Roberts, Creativity Guide, Morgan Grampian 1960, provides a self-contained overview of techniques available for enhancing idea-generation.
The reference may be dated but the techniques certainly are not as current works (see eg. De Bono, op cit) add little of substance. Besides, it's interesting to compare the 60's outlook with that of today !

4. How to solve problems creatively

Businesses concerned with the manufacture or selling of commodities must look closely at five basic problems :

• How to manufacture products more cheaply.
• How to get more money for them.
• How to enlarge the uses of the products and thereby improve sales.
• How to improve profitability.
• How to find new products.

WHAT IS A PROBLEM?

Basically, there are two types of problem (a) Analytical and (b) Creative. Both can be further defined as follows :

• The analytical problem.This is defined exactly and with a clue to the probable answer, e.g. A boy says 'I have as many brothers as sisters.' His older sister replies 'I have twice as many brothers as sisters.' How many brothers and sisters constitute the family? The question is solved by the individual applying one or more mathematical skills, by direct experimentation, or by means of 'trial and error' techniques. There exists only one correct answer to the stated problem.
• The creative problem.In general terms this can be defined as a situation demanding the positive application of an individual's creative abilities. Usually, the problem is stated in very general terms, e.g. 'What would happen if we changed the material?' or 'How can we improve reliability, or reduce costs' etc. No hint of the answer is given. Unlike (a) the Creative problem can be solved by using many different creative approaches which, again unlike the Analytical problem, will produce several possible solutions, all perhaps equally good.

TWO APPROACHES TO SOLVING CREATIVE PROBLEMS

Broadly, there are two different approaches to solving problems creatively, namely :

• Imagineering - a process involving a very free use of the imagination, by which the problem- solver virtually catapults his thinking into the unknown and then works - or engineers - his way back to reality. This necessitates considerable control of the user's evaluating and censoring attitudes.
• Organised Thinking- a system of rules and procedures developed so that tested creative techniques can be applied to problems on a step-by-step basis.

• Fact-finding - involves locating and defining the specific problem then collecting and analysing pertinent information.
• Idea-finding - involves thinking up tentative ideas as possible pointers to acceptable solutions and then selecting the most promising ideas, adding others, modifying them or arranging them in different combinations.
• Solution-finding - involves verifying tentative solutions by tests and other means before deciding upon, and implementing, the final solutions.

STANDARD PROBLEM SOLVING DEVICES

For effectiveness the 'Organised Thinking' approach to problem solving is divided into seven progressive stages of attack :

1. Orientation.Purpose - To ensure that the individual is thoroughly familiar with the problem and, having decided whether it is analytical or creative, can adjust his method of treatment accordingly.
2. Preparation.Purpose - To ensure that the individual's mental 'storehouse' is suitably equipped to tackle the problem by delving into the background of the matter and absorbing maximum factual information concerning the problem and its history.
3. Analysis.Purpose - Here the individual systematically evaluates the problem so that he can decide whether or not there are any sub-problems to accomplish. He may ask himself the following questions :
   • Why is there a problem?
   • What effects or consequences are directly and indirectly attributable to the problem?
   • Are the troublesome items essential? Can they be dispensed without creating further problems. Can the problem by solved by :
     • substituting a different part?
     • replacing a part?
     • repair ?
     • redesign?
   • Are there any other problems?
   • What relationship exists between the main problem and the sub-problem?
   • What effect has time on the problem?
   • Is the problem really worth solving?
4. Hypothesis. Purpose - To enable every conceivable aspect of the problem to be imaginatively considered and without prior evaluation. The individual relaxes his judgment and deliberately allows his imagination to wander, at the same time keeping the problem clearly in focus. He tries to get away from conventional possibilities by imagining new combinations, features that are opposite to existing ones etc.
5. Incubation.Purpose - To provide opportunity for the individual's subconscious to unravel a connecting thread between his mental 'storehouse' and the problem needs. This stage is a subliminal repetition of the deliberate hypothesising of the previous stage - the Eureka factor.No conscious action is required though a period of time must be allowed for gestation.
6. Synthesis.Purpose - To reassemble the component parts of the problem. The ideas developed during earlier stages are carefully evaluated from different viewpoints, i.e. feasibility, practicability, availability, cost, time etc.
7. Verification.Purpose - To evaluate the resultant ideas and ensure that the final solution will really work and is acceptable to prevailing conditions.

The process of accumulating tentative ideas is an indispensable part of any problem solving project, whether it be creating a new household appliance or in solving a complex production problem. Almost always it is necessary to think up a number of unusable ideas in order to arrive at one that may work.
Similarly, the process of analysing these ideas is important. Often the mere breaking down of the problem may reveal the answer, or show that the real problem is other than the one originally considered.

ROAD-BLOCKS TO PROBLEM APPRECIATION

Success in creative problem solving partly depends upon a clear understanding of the actual problem involved. Often the definition of a problem is more essential than its solution, which may be merely a matter of mathematical or experimental skill.
Inability to understand a particular problem clearly is often due to one or more of the following perceptual blocks :

1. Difficulty in isolating the problem.The individual is unable to separate the real problem from related problems. Too often he is not tackling the real problem at all.
2. Difficulty caused by over-narrowing the problem.Little or no attention is paid to the environment surrounding the problem. The individual is thus unable to see the problem in any other terms than those presented in it. For example, try and solve this problem. (You can do anything you like with the 'nines'.) How can you make four nines equal one hundred?
3. Inability to define terms.Most problems are described by means of words and these can, and often do, cause confusion. The manner in which words are used often makes a problem more difficult to solve. The more words we use to describe the problem and which bring stereotyped or particular images to mind, the more our thinking is likely to be influenced along these particular lines. For example: 'Two Indians stood on a hill. One is the father of the other's son! What is their relationship?' Nine out of ten who see this simple problem for the first time find it difficult, and invariably produce the wrong answer. If, however, the problem is rephrased, the correct answer becomes immediately obvious, e.g. 'Two indians stood on a hill. He is the father of her son. What is their relationship?'
4. Difficulty in seeing remote relationships.This is the ability to form or transfer concepts. It necessitates the ability to look at different objects or situations, or even problems, so as to determine what they have in common. The common factor may not be a physical likeness. It may be one of relationship, having functional similarities in one situation which apply in another.
5. Failure to use all senses in observing.Ordinarily, we think of observations as seeing only. However, it often helps in solving problems to use the complementary senses of smell, taste, hearing, feeling, etc. For example, the maintenance department of one well-known firm uses tape- recorded noises of their production machinery to diagnose machine faults because they found that watching a machine in operation proved distracting and audible indications to possible faults went by unheard.
6. Difficulty in not investigating the obvious.Once an individual becomes accustomed to looking at certain situations and problems in a particular way, it becomes increasingly difficult to depart from that routine. Because of familiarity he really ceases to 'see' them in their fullest detail. The designer's first reaction to the task of designing a new part is to look for components which are physically similar, and provide the same function rather than ask himself: 'What better, simpler or cheaper method could be used to achieve the same end result?'
   All too often designers, engineers, managers, etc. search for the complicated solution when the simple will suffice; they develop complex designs and processes because they think they are more in keeping with modern technological standards when, in fact, these are not needed and represent areas of unnecessary cost.
7. Failure to distinguish between 'cause' and 'effect'. Most people believe quite confidently that they know the difference between 'cause' and 'effect'. Too often however, the distinctions are not clear-cut and confusion results.

FOURTEEN RULES FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS CREATIVELY

From the foregoing certain relatively simple rules can be developed which, when used in an orderly progressive manner, can prove invaluable aids for effective problem-solving.

1. Understand the problem clearly - To understand the problem so that its purpose is clear, visualise the problem as a whole, clearly and vividly. For the moment, ignore confusing details and side issues.
2. Define the problem exactly - If the problem is clearly understood it should be possible to state it clearly in ten words or less. Make sure that the words used communicate a crystal clear picture of the problem and nothing else.
3. Think about the problem generally - illuminate the whole problem by thinking about all its aspects. Vital angles of a problem are often so obscure that they escape notice. Emphasise different parts, examine different details, note the same details repeatedly but in different ways. Combine the details differently, approach them from different sides, different viewpoints, etc.
4. Isolate the principal parts of the problem - List the principal parts of the problern. Consider them singly, in turn, in various combinations, and by relating each detail to other details and to the whole of the problem.
5. Think up what information might help to solve the problem - In general terms consider the various kinds of information and material that might prove helpful in solving the problem.
6. List the most likely sources of information - Having considered the various types of information most likely to be of help, list them and decide in what order they are to be researched.
7. Dream up all possible ideas that keep to the problem - Apply imagination creatively to produce as many ideas as possible freely. Do not, at this stage, evaluate ideas. Remember different words produce different mental images and, therefore, different ideas. Try using different words to describe the problem and see what ideas are produced.
8. Change direction and let your subconscious take the problem over - Once you seem to have stopped producing ideas, change direction by switching to some other type of work completely unassociated with the problem, but which will fully occupy thinking. After a while, return to the problem and see what ideas result from your subconscious mind's attack on the problem.
9. Select the ideas most likely to lead to an acceptable solution - Evaluate each idea by judicial thinking and so remove valueless ideas.
10. Think up all possible ways to test the solution - Use creative thinking techniques to produce possible ways for testing the proposed solution.
11. Choose the soundest ways to test the final solution - List these ways in the form of a check-list against which the solution can be reliably tested.
12. Imagine all possible contingencies - Even though the final solution has been corroborated by experiment, it is helpful to envisage what might happen as a result of its adoption. For example, an improvement to new products must also be processed on the basis of competitors' actions to counteract the advantages the improvement brings.
13. Decide on the final answer - Carefully weigh up all the pros and cons to ensure that the solution fully satisfies the problem.
14. Activate the solution - Expedite whatever action is essential for the successful implementation of the solution.

EXAMPLE OF CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO A SPECIFIC PROBLEM

Problem as stated to the works engineer of a chemical works :
A stainless steel, cylindrical, one gallon capacity valve-control float, specially made by a German firm, had very gradually lost buoyancy. This was detected just in time to avoid serious production difficulties.
The works engineer instructed the maintenance foreman to have the float examined immediately. On shaking the float, the foreman estimated that about a quart of water remained inside the float - but none came out of the stainless steel shell. He reported his findings to the works engineer and although both carefully examined the float, they could see no leak.

SOLVING THE PROBLEM

Stage A. Specify the problem (by listing all the creative type of questions the problem suggests)

• How can the leak be found?
• How can the hole be sealed?
• What material can be used to coat the entire float without having to find the hole?
• How can the hole be kept at the top of the float, so that the water will not seep in?
• How can the hole be sealed up?

Stage B. Define the problem exactly. (What is the real problem? What is the basic objective? What precisely has to be accomplished? Apply questions that will produce the largest number of different answers. Avoid use of image-provoking words when preparing final description).

• How can the float be repaired quickly?
• How can further loss of buoyancy be prevented?
• How can buoyancy be restored and maintained?
• How can the valve be eliminated?

Stage C. Consider the problem generally. (Have any aspects been overlooked?)

• Is there a 'spare' float?
• What other part can be used to reliably replace the float?
• How can the hole be enlarged to facilitate discovery?
• Can the float be modified - with the water in it - to nullify the effect of the hole?
• What other device can be used with the float to compensate for the hole's effect?
• What liquids would penetrate the hole more easily than water?
• What else can help overcome the loss of buoyancy?

Stage D. Dream-up all possible ideas relevant to the problem but do not evaluate.

• Use a microscope to look for the hole?
• Cover the float with fine white chalk powder?
• Replace the float with a block of wood?
• Make an identical float out of plastics material?
• X-ray the float to find the hole?
• Drill another hole in the float and pump it full of coloured liquid?
• Heat float and watch for release of steam from hole.
• Submerge float in water and fill with compressed air, watch for bubbles indicating hole.
• Apply adhesive rubber material to entire surface of float. Magnetise whole surface of float, then cover with powdered iron. Put float in vacuum tank and watch for seepage.
• Put float inside tight-fitting rubber balloon to seal-off leak.

Stage E and F. Evaluate ideas produced and refine by considering such factors as feasibility, practicability, cost, time, who does what with what etc. in respect of each idea.

FINAL SOLUTION

Play the flame from an ordinary welding torch over the bottom surface of the float until the water boils and creates steam. Roll the float until the leak is under water and watch for emission of pressured water. Then weld up revealed hole. Note: When the described method was used in practice the steam pressure drove out a thin jet of water a foot long.

Now try creatively solving this problem :

Problem 4.1
The youngsters in a large city delighted in stealing electric light bulbs from the underground railway carriages, often leaving a train in semi or total darkness by the end of the journey. The railway company could not afford to employ more personnel to watch for bulb-snatchers. Neither could the police department afford to station men in underground trains. How can the pilferage be halted?

5. Brainstorming positively develops creative ideas

The formation of any business begins with someone producing the initial idea for the project. The continued success of an established business depends upon the number and quality of the ideas fed into it. Without a continual flow of new ideas, a business cannot function profitably or expand successfully and must, therefore eventually fade into total obscurity.

Ideas for a new business project, a new product, a means of reducing manufacturing costs, or for solving industrial labour problems, begin in the human mind. Most people conceive their ideas unconsciously, and because they are unaware of the mental mechanics that caused the 'idea' to be produced, they cannot repeat the ideation process to produce further profitable ideas at will.

Fortunately, there are available established creative techniques which, when used correctly, do enable a person to produce a large number of first-class ideas at will. One such creative technique, and probably the most widely used in American industry, is 'brainstorming'.

WHAT IS 'BRAINSTORMING'?

This unique technique is used for the deliberate production of a large number of ideas in the shortest possible time.

Developed some 28 years ago by Alex F Osborn, co-founder of one of America's most successful advertising agencies, 'brainstorming' originally referred only to deliberate ideation by groups. As a result of practical usage, modification and research, the term has evolved until now it refers to the basic principle of suspended judgment which scientific research has proved to be highly productive in individual creative effort as well as in group effort.

Deferred judgment functions on the basis of the deliberate alteration of normal thought processes. Instead of trying to think critically and imaginatively at one and the same time, the creative thinker uses his creative mind and his judicial mind separately. In other words judgment is not allowed to jam creative imagination.

To test this principle a group of ideators jointly brainstormed a particular problem while, simultaneously, an equal number of ideators individually attacked the same problem in the conventional way - but without deferring judgment. The results showed that, in the same amount of time, the groups which applied the deferred judgment principle produced 75 per cent more good ideas than did the groups who judged each idea separately before producing another.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BRAINSTORMING

Although the detailed procedures used in applying the 'brainstorming' technique tend to vary in line with the special needs of the user, in almost all applications the following general rules apply when using the techniques.

Rule 1. Considerably more ideas will be produced if critical judgment is entirely eliminated during the idea production process.

Because education and experience have trained most people to think judicially (i.e. critically) rather than imaginatively, the flow of ideas they are capable of producing is impeded because they apply their critical evaluative faculties too soon. They are more concerned with assessing the value of individual ideas than with creating a large number of alternative ideas. By deferring judgment during the idea-producing process, however, alternative ideas can be produced for a longer period, and therefore, a considerably larger number of ideas are available for evaluation at the end of the ideation period.

Rule 2. Group ideation can add to an individual's idea output.

Usually a person's experience of joint thinking is gained from his attendance at the traditional kind of conference or lecture, where original ideas are neither asked for nor encouraged.

The principal value of group brainstorming lies in the fact that a brainstorming session, when properly conducted, can produce far more good ideas than a conventional conference - and in much less time. A striking example of this can be instanced by a brainstorming session held by the American Cyanamid Company which produced 92 ideas in a single 15 minute session - more than 6 ideas per minute, and an average of over 8 ideas per person attending the session.

Group brainstorming procedures call for individual ideation both before and after each session. Since a combination of these two methods of approach to 'brainstorming' usually produces maximum results, an alternation between group ideation and individual ideation is recommended as the best means of obtaining really effective results.

Rule 3. The more ideas that can be created, the better the overall results.

Characteristic of brainstorming is the fact that by driving for a few more ideas, you get far more. Ideas create still more ideas. First you get 30 and you want to get 60. Then when you get 60 you want to get 75. Probably seven of those last 15 ideas are first rate, and would never have been conceived had the quantity of ideas required been, say, limited to only 30. The more suggestions produced during a brainstorming session, the greater the chances of producing first-class ideas.

PREPARATION FOR GROUP BRAINSTORMING

The size of a brainstorming group depends upon the extent and type of organisation it is to serve. Ideally, the group should consist of a Chairman, a Recorder (otherwise known as the 'idea collector'), six regular 'core' members and about six guests. Certain qualification requirements govern the selection of a group's members, namely :

1. Group Chairman. The Group Chairman, or Leader, should be trained in advance of his function. Preferably he should have taken a course in creative thinking and have participated, as a group member, in various brainstorming sessions. He should NOT be a senior member of the organisation's management.

2. Recorder. The only contribution required of the Recorder is that he or she be able to record all ideas quickly and reliably, and without interruption of the ideation proceedings. Often a tape-recorder can be used effectively for this function.

3. 'Core' Members. As the 'core' members are the group's pace-setters, they must be people who have repeatedly demonstrated their ability to produce original ideas or suggestions.

4. Guests. The guests should be invited from various departments of either the organisation or its associate concerns. A different group of guests should be invited for each brainstorming session. This rotation helps to spread a creative spirit throughout an organisation, and prevents the development of a rigid pattern of thinking, such as would occur if the same guests were invited to each and every session.
Often it is helpful to include among the chosen guests at least one, or possibly two, people who know nothing at all about the problem under discussion. People without experience in a particular field bring a new, often valuable viewpoint to the problem.

5. Pre-conditioning. Since guests who have never before participated in brainstorming sessions are unfamiliar with the various creative techniques involved, a relatively thorough orientation is recommended. Ideally, this should be accomplished in a 30 minute briefing lecture which covers the basic principles of ideation as well as brainstorming procedures.

6. Attendance of Top Management. Experience indicates that brainstorming sessions tend to be less productive when a high-ranking member of the organisation's management is present. They tend by facial expression, or otherwise, to induce an inferiority complex on the part of the remaining members of the group, and thus discourage 'free-wheeling '.

7. Size of Group. Although larger sized groups have been used for brainstorming sessions, experience indicates that the optimum size of a group is about a dozen.

HOW TO CONDUCT A BRAINSTORMING SESSION

Essential to the success of any group brainstorming session is an atmosphere that will allow each member of the group to depart freely from his logical and conforming mental control, and to assume the framework established by the Group Chairman.

(a) Preliminary procedures

1. Simplify the problem - The first task of the Chairman In organlsing a brainstorming session is to ensure that the problem to be brainstormed is presented in a manner best calculated to produce the largest number of alternative ideas. This he does by carefully examining the problem with the individual who submitted it. His objective is to ensure that the problem is stated simply and specifically. It should not be an all-encompassing problem, such as 'how to reduce manufacturing costs?' Such a problem must first be analysed into its numerous, more specific sub-problems like 'Ideas for reducing material costs'; 'Ideas for reducing machinery costs'; 'Ideas for reducing drilling costs' etc., which may be more amenable to the brainstorming process.

2. Highlight the problem's background - Once a single specific problem has been selected and its definition agreed upon, the individual who submitted it must provide the informative background necessary to familiarise the group's participants with the problem. This he does by providing the material for a one-page memorandum, to be written by the group Chairman, which high-lights the background of the problem, states the problem in its simplest terms, and gives at least two examples of the type of ideas which are sought (as shown opposite).

3. Select and invite participants - The Chairman then selects his group participants in the light of the nature of the problem to be solved. At least two days in advance of the session the participants are invited by telephone or otherwise and are simultaneously supplied with copies of the 'background' memorandum (such as that ilustrated) so as to allow the participants to 'sleep on the problem' thus allowing incubation to enhance the working of free association of ideas.
Similarly, the Chairman should develop in advance his own list of possible solutions to the problem so that, if and when the session slows down or gets off track, he is in a position to reactivate the flow of ideas by contributing some of his own. The same objective can also be achieved by the Chairman introducing idea-spurring questions.

(b) Group session procedure

4. State the basic rules - Once the group is assembled the Chairman outlines the four basic rules to be adhered to throughout the session, namely :

• Judicial judgment of ideas is not allowed - Criticism of ideas produced MUST be withheld until later. (Someone, or another group, will evaluate the ideas later. )
• 'Free-Wheeling' is welcomed - The wilder the idea, the better. It is easier to moderate than to produce.
• Quantity of ideas is wanted - The greater the number of ideas, the more likelihood of good ones.
• Combination and improvement are sought - In addition to contributing their own ideas, each member suggests how ideas contributed by others can be improved, or how two or more ideas could, with advantage, be combined.

5. The Practice Session - Before seriously brainstorming the given problem, a 10 minute practice, or 'warm-up' session is provided. This exercise should consist of brainstorming some simple problem, such as: 'In what ways could office chairs be improved?'

6. Brainstorming the problem - At the end of 10 minutes the Chairman calls a halt to the practice session. He then repeats the rules of the session, presents the problem simply and then calls for suggestions in solution of the stated problem.
When several hands are raised simultaneously there is the danger that in absorbing ideas propounded, the later participants may forget their ideas. It is recommended, therefore that each member be provided with a scratch-pad so that he can jot down details of ideas he plans to offer when his turn comes.
Participants are not allowed to bring written ideas into the meeting. Only one idea should be offered at a time by any participant, otherwise the pace of the session will be impeded.

7. Recording the ideas produced - The job of the Recorder is to list every idea suggested during the brainstorm session. Ideas should not be taken down word for word, but briefly reported. The Recorder should be seated next to the Chairman so that he, or she, is in direct line of communication with him, as well as with the other members of the group.
Some firms tape-record their brainstorm sessions, thus enabling the Recorder to re-check the list of ideas which have been reported during the session.
Regardless of how the ideas are recorded, it is helpful to write a few on a black-board during the progress of the session in order to provide visual stimulation to the participants. This enables the Chairman to refer the group to these listed ideas in case of lulls, or to encourage idea-combinations by free-association of ideas.
Each idea recorded should be numbered so as to enable the Chairman to know how many ideas have been produced up to any point of time in the session. If he has previously decided upon a particular quota of ideas for the session, he is then able to know at any time how close he is to his target.
No idea should be identified with the participant responsible for suggesting it. Possibly, the very same idea may have been previously thought up by another participant. Or the idea may have resulted directly from an earlier suggestion made by someone else.

8. Terminating the sesslon - Experience indicates that the optimum length for a group brainstorming session is about 40 minutes. If more time is needed, it is a good idea to break up the problem into smaller problems, each of which can be handled satisfactorily in a 40 minute session.
When closing the session the Chairman expresses his appreciation and requests the participants to keep the problem in their minds until the next day when they will be asked for their afterthoughts.

9. Post-session activities - The following day, the group's Recorder either sees or phones the participants to obtain from them any further suggestions they may have to offer.
Because each of the participants has 'slept' on the problem, some of the most valuable ideas are likely to be produced as a result of individual ideation pursuant to the session.
Many companies using brainstorming adopt a multiple programme for gathering post-session ideas by :

• Sending typed minutes of each session to each participant, with plenty of blank space provided so that they can add further suggestions that have since occurred to them.
• Circulating a round-robin idea-folder to be passed to each participant within a definite time, and with instructions that new ideas are to be added in handwriting.

10. Evaluation of ideas - Evaluating the final selection of ideas is generally done by the individual responsible for submitting the problem that has been brainstormed. He selects those ideas which seem to be the most promising, at the same time seeking to develop more and better ideas by combining one idea with another, or a series of ideas, or by reprocessing the ideas through combination, elaboration or other creative means. Wary of rejecting apparently farfetched ideas too quickly, he considers the seemingly silliest idea from all possible viewpoints. As a result, the most unpracticable idea is often developed into a first-rate suggestion.
To facilitate the evaluation of ideas, it is often helpful to create a check-list of the various criteria to which the required ideas should conform and so as to ensure that each idea is considered from various essential viewpoints. The following examples illustrate the (a) type of check-list that could be used to evaluate ideas for a new product and (b) that could be applied to ideas for improving the manufacture of a particular product.

a. Criteria for evaluating ideas for a new product

1. Is the idea simple enough?
2. Is it compatible with human nature?
3. Is it timely?
4. Is it feasible?
5. Can it be duplicated by competition?
6. Is its application limited?
7. Is it costly to produce?
8. Is it safe? etc.

b. Check-list of criteria for ideas relating to improving the manufacture of a particular product.

1. Will it increase production - or improve quality?
2. Is it an improvement over the present tools and machinery?
3. Does it improve methods of operation, maintenance or construction?
4. Does it permit a more effective utilisation of manpower?
5. Does it prevent waste or conserve materials?
6. Does it eliminate unnecessary work?
7. Does it improve present methods?
8. Does it reduce costs?
9. Will it improve working conditions?
10. Does it improve safety?
11. Does it improve labour relations?

Pertinent crlteria can be added to each check-list and as dictated by the nature of the ideas to be evaluated.

11.The presentation of selected ideas - Having dlscarded all worthless ideas, the valuer then prepares, in order of merit, a short list of what he considers to be the ideas most likely to solve the problem satisfactorily, and which he is prepared to recommend to his management.

Problem 5.1
A small sized village church congregation of limited financial means faced the problem of repainting its church hall in time for its annual anniversary and village fete. To reduce costs, the men of the congregation decided to do the painting during their spare time.

Two weeks before the day of the fete most of the hall still remained unpainted. Most of the male volunteers seemed disinterested in honouring their promises and it became evident to the worried Repair Chairman that he would have to act quickly, and creatively, if the hall was to be painted in time for the much publicised anniversary. Studying the expanse to be painted, he soon hit upon an idea for ensuring that the work was completed in time and at no extra cost.

Putting yourself in the Repair Chairman's shoes, What would you do?

6. Practical techniques for producing profitable ideas

Finding a good new product idea is the cornerstone of successful product development. Without good ideas to develop, there can be no successful new products. Business firms who fail because their products are out-dated, too costly, or because they have been unable to develop new products, do so mainly because their key employees have fallen down on ideation techniques for the production of new product ideas.

ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

Today, not even a new-product development specialist can afford to depend upon the accidental discovery of ideas. He must know, and be able to apply, the various creative techniques available for producing good ideas deliberately and in large numbers.
These techniques are divided into three distinct categories, namely :

• Analytical techniques.
• Free association techniques.
• Forced relations techniques.

The most popular analytical methods, or creative 'tools ', are :

• Attribute listing - developed by Professor L. Crawford of the University of Nebraska.
• Input-output - developed by the Creative Engineering Department of the General Electric Co., USA.
• Morphological analysis - developed by Dr. F. Zwicky of the California Institute of Technology's Creative Engineering Department.

Each method involves the serious application of two basic rules, namely :

1. All ideas conceived, no matter how impractical they may appear to be, MUST be seriously considered.
2. Prior judgment and evaluation of individual ideas is NOT permitted whilst ideas are being produced.

(a) Attribute listing

Generally, this method is employed when new ideas are required to improve an existing product, process or field of usage. The underlying principle is that a 'new' idea is a combination of existing ideas to which various new attributes have been applied.

First, however, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of what constitutes an 'attribute'. Attributes are defined along three dimensions:

• The material of which the particular item is made (i.e. type, physical properties, etc.).
• The method(s) of manufacture (i.e. stamped, moulded, welded, etc. ).
• The specific way(s) in which the item is used (i.e. what it does, what function it performs, how it is used, etc.).

'Attributes' are NOT opinions concerning the item under creative review, e.g. 'difficult to hold', 'too heavy'. 'too slow', 'too dangerous', etc. These are opinions and not attributes. It is imperative, when using this method to ensure that the various attributes selected for creative attack relate to the immediate physical characteristics, manufacturing methods, and usage purposes of the particular items under review, Usually unique attributes tend to produce the greatest opportunity for original ideas, whilst those attributes common to most products (i.e. colour, shape, size, weight, etc. ) tend to yield opportunities for fewer extraordinary or original ideas.

For further clarification of what is meant by 'Attribute Listing', and how it is used to improve an existing product, let us consider the old-fashioned, conventional wooden screwdriver. Its main attributes are :

• A round, steel shank.
• A wooden handle riveted to the shank.
• A steel, wedge shaped, end for engaging the slot in the screw-head.<
• It is manually operated in that the screw driving torque is provided with a physical, twisting action.

Over the years each attribute has been changed many times to provide supposedly, a new and better screwdriver. The round steel shank has been changed to a hexagonal shape, so that a spanner could be applied to it and so increase the applied torque. The wooden handle has been replaced by a moulded rubber or plastics handle, thus reducing breakage hazards and danger from electrical shock.
The wedge-shaped end has been modified to fit all kinds of screw heads. Pneumatic or electric power has been substituted for physical power. Other modifications include detachable ends, containers built into the handle, reversible, push-action manual drives, etc.

If Attribute listing is to be used effectively, the following four progressive steps must be applied:

1. Isolate, and list all the principal attributes of the product, process, or item under review,
2. Carefully consider each 'attribute' in turn, in groups, and then in various combinations by changing the combination in every conceivable manner. Relate each particular characteristic to the other attributes and each to the whole of the problem in order to see how it can be changed or improved.<
3. List all the ideas produced.
4. Evaluate each idea in the light of the limitations of the problem and list - in order of merit - those ideas worthy of serious consideration.

Example

Suggest design improvements for the common telephone. The telephone's main attributes can be listed as follows:

1. Coloured, usually black, cream, or grey.
2. Comprises two components, a handset (incorporating a microphone and speaker) and base.
3. Circular dial for communicating number required.
4. Constructed mainly of plastics.
5. Electrically operated.

Carefully and creative consideration of the product's present attributes suggest the following changes :

1. Coloured, usually black, cream, or grey.
   • Use red or other colours.
   • Could be two-toned.
   • Could incorporate visual signs (e.g. polka dot, abstract art, personalised designs, or initials).
   • Could be self-illuminating (for use at night).
2. Comprises two components, a handset (incorporating a microphone and speaker) and base.
   • Design so that handset fits comfortably to user's fingers.
   • Incorporate device to allow user to hold speaker to ear without use of hands.
   • Make base square, oval, round, higher, or lower.
   • Make handset and base a single, self-contained unit.
   • Incorporate TV screen so that user can see speaker.
   • Incorporate separate recording and playback mechanism.
   • Incorporate independent and variable volume control.
3. Circular dial for communicating number required.
   • Replace with press-button system.
   • Use pictures instead of numbers for speedy contact with emergency services.
   • Incorporate a simple computer to interpret vocal commands.
   • Incorporate automatic fault indicator.
4. Constructed mainly of plastics.
   • Could be made of metal, glass, wood, compressed paper, hard rubber, or other plastics.
5. Electrically operated.
   • Redesign to operate on independent power supply.

A quick evaluation suggests that the conventional domestic telephone could be considerably improved by redesigning it as a single, self-contained, easily-handled unit that is self-illuminating and which incorporates the following additional useful features:

• Small TV screen.
• Separate recording and playback device.
• Independent volume control.
• Press-button dialing system with pictures to indicate emergency services or computer to interpret vocal commands.

(b) The input-output method

This method generally operates when the product, or problem, under review involves the use of one or more forms of energy. Basically, the method involves presenting the problem in the form of a dynamic system comprising input, output, and specifications. These are generalised, and questions are asked about all three divisions in such a way as to suggest variant approaches to possible answers. For example, if the problem is the discovery of means for improving an electric clothes dryer, the INPUT is electric heat, and the OUTPUT covers the dry clothes, or, by finer analysis, evaporated water or water vapour.

The specifications are determined by the objective required, which might be a faster machine.

Often, when using this method, the 'output' feature can be used as a new 'input' aimed toward the specified objective and the solution of the given problem. For instance, in the case of the electric clothes dryer the evolved water vapour could be conducted over an indicator which switches the machine off when the vapour reaches a predetermined low concentration, thus utilising the 'output' as a new 'input'

The progressive steps involved in applying this particular method to a problem are as follows:

1. Establish the desired end result, i.e. the 'output' or solution required.
2. Determine the 'input', i.e. the various forms of energy available and which are likely to be of use in providing the desired 'output '.
3. Decide the problem's limiting conditions.
4. Analyse the 'input' in order to decide how the various forms of energy produced by it can best be used to achieve the desired 'output' or solution.

Example

Design an effective fire-warning system for use in a factory.

1. Establish desired 'output' = warning of the presence of fire.
2. Determine 'input' = fire.
3. Decide, and specify the problem's limiting conditions:
   Desired specifications - The warning must be received one mile from the factory premises and within 15 seconds after the fire starts. The cost of the system must be within £800. The system must be easy to install, relatively trouble-free, and simple to maintain. It must be capable of operating efficiently 24 hours a day and on a seven-day a week basis.
4. Analyse the input to decide how the various forms of energy produced can best be used to achieve the desired solution.

• What 'outputs' are directly produced by the stated 'input' ?
  Answer - Fire, heat, light. Also, the gaseous and solid products of combustion and smoke.
• Can any of these features be used to produce the desired output directly?
  Answer - No. Although the combination of light and smoke would provide its own warning signal, the fire producing this combination would, by that time, be almost uncontrollable and have damaged much of the premises.
• What reactions are caused by heat?
  Answer - Light, smoke, fumes, the expansion of metals, glass, liquids, and gases. Intense heat can also change the composition of certain chemicals. Similarly, light and smoke can cause various chemical and physical actions and reactions.
• Can any of these reactions be used to achieve the desired 'output'?
  Answer - Yes. The difference in the rate of the thermal expansion of glass and metal could be used to operate a water or chemical 'sprinkler' system, or to break an electric current; a liquid that exceeds a predetermined level of expansion at a specified temperature could be used to trigger a valve; an alloy which quickly melts at a temperature below the boiling point of fresh water could be used to break an electric circuit or to trigger open a mechanised valve; various chemicals can be used to detect light; certain chemicals, when exposed to heat, can quickly produce a non-inflammable, non-toxic, high density gas or foam which can be used to smother a fire.

(c) Morphological analysis

Morphological Analysis is a creative approach to problem-solving that makes use of a matrix to relate all conceivable features or functions required of the solution to all possible means of obtaining such features or functions. The technique is especially useful for developing a new product. It has the effect of gathering together a large volume of relevant information before applying critical judgment in the form of specified criteria for the rejection of impractical solutions. The steps used are as follows:

1. Prepare a broad, and general, statement of the problem.
2. Define as broadly and as completely as possible all the various independent variables to be considered, then sub-divide them.
3. Prepare a matrix, or 'morphological chart', using each variable as an axis (see Figure 1 below), the size of which is determined by the number of variables to be considered.
4. List all idea combinations suggested by the chart .
5. Evaluate listed ideas by subjecting each idea to a previously prepared specification or comparison 'check list'.

The following simplified example illustrates the use of this method for producing a large number of ideas.

Example

Problem (stated in broadest possible terms) -
To remove something from one place to another by means of a powered vehicle. Independent Variables to be considered -

1. Type of vehicle.
   Subdivide to give - ship, wagon, chair, bed, sling, bicycle (numerous others could be included).
2. Media on which vehicles operate.
   Subdivide to give - air, water, oil, hard surface, rails, wheels, rollers.
3. Source of motive power.
   Subdivide to give - atomic energy, electricity, air, water, steam, gas, cable or endless belt, IC engine or turbine.

Let us assume that the above three variables will completely describe some device for removing something from one place to another.

This may seem an over-simplification, but it helps to clarify the function of the chart. Now think of the chart as a filing cabinet with drawers opening in all three directions, and each containing a different 'idea'. The 'idea' contents of each of the drawers will be defined by ONE of the variations of each of the three independent variables.

For example, if the contents of drawer lettered 'A' (Figure 1) were examined, they would suggest a bed-type vehicle moving over a hard surface and powered by an Internal Combustion Engine. Similarly, the contents of the drawer lettered 'B' would suggest a sling-type vehicle moving in air and powered by a moving cable. Again, the contents of drawer 'C' would suggest a chair-type vehicle travelling on wheels powered by electricity.

Using the subdivisions chosen for the three independent variables, the morphological chart constructed in the above example will, by using the various combinations, produce 330 ideas. By increasing the number of variables along each axis the number of idea-combinations can be increased.

To evaluate the large number of ideas yielded by the chart, each idea would be screened against a carefully compiled Specification which outlines the particular features required of the final solution, e.g. low cost, high degree of safety, speed and man¦uvrability, fuel consumption, acceleration, seating, and storage accommodation, etc.

Problem 6.1
Look at a simple screw driver (metal blade - wooden handle). Jot down all the ways by which this screw driver could be further improved.

Problem 6.2
Name the ways in which current television sets might be improved.

Problem 6.3
What features in your house might be improved if they were curved instead of straight?

7. Practical techniques for producing new ideas

More and more far-seeing, profit-minded members of industry's top management are developing an acute awareness that their company's profitability is closely related to the ability of its key personnel to develop new products, efficient manufacturing methods, and successful marketing techniques. They are also aware that the rapidity of technological advancement and the ever-dynamic competitive response, compress the time scale of a product's life-cycle to such an extent that the new product ideas must be produced at maximum rate. If continued profitability is to be assured, key personnel must be purposely trained to use every established creative technique now available for deliberately producing a continuous supply of new ideas that will enhance production speed.

As explained in Part 6, these techniques are divided into three distinct categories, namely:

1. Analytical Techniques (described in Part 6)
2. Free Association Techniques.
3. Forced Relations Techniques.

FREE ASSOCIATION TECHNIQUES

Scientific investigation has established that the average individual's ability to produce good ideas is deliberately increased by the application of two basic creative principles:

• Deferral of judgement
  Twice as many good ideas can be produced (in the same amount of time) providing judgment of each idea as it is produced, is deliberately withheld.

• Quantity improves quality
  The overall quality of the ideas generated improves with the quantity of ideas produced.

Free Association techniques are largely based on the principles described above and include :

• Brainstorming
• The Gordon Method
• Imagination- Underdeveloped- Resource (IUR)
• The 'Hypothetical Situation' Method
• Buzz Session
• Reverse Brainstorming
• Slip Writing

The advantages of Brainstorming, the application of which has been previously described (see Part 5), are :

• Less inhibitionism and defeatism. The rapid fire exchange of ideas by a Brainstorm Group quickly explodes the myth that the individual cannot think of a new and different solution to a problem.
• Building upon the ideas of others. What may seem an absurd idea to one member of the group may stimulate another to produce a new and useful idea.
• Contagion of enthusiasm.
• Development of a competitive 'creative' spirit as a result of which each participant wants to top the other's idea.

The 'Gordon' Method

Devised by William J. Gordon of Arthur D. Little, Inc., an American firm of professional creative thinkers who specialise in producing ideas for new products for other firms, the 'Gordon' Method of creative thinking bears a certain similarity to Brainstorming in that it :

• is a Group procedure,
• encourages unevaluated, free-flowing creative discussion,
• prior criticism of ideas is ruled out.

Unlike Brainstorming, the purpose of the Gordon Method is to produce, not many ideas but one or two radically new ideas. At the outset. only the Group Chairman knows the exact nature of the problem under consideration.

The initial discussions focus on a very broad subject related to the problem only in a very general way. For example if the problem was to invent a new type of lawn mower, the Group Chairman would simply define the problem as 'cutting' or perhaps 'separation'. As particular areas of thought became exhausted, the Chairman interjects further limited facts which, in a progressive manner, are a little more explicit to the problem. In the example given the problem would be progressed by considering the nature of blades or the value of rotary motion, thus opening up new, related fields to explore as the discussion continues.

The Gordon Method of applied creativity is largely used for producing new ideas for products. Its success is controlled by the creative leadership of the Group Chairman and his expertise in isolating, and presenting various related aspects of the problem under consideration. To regard another totally different example. Suppose the problem is to find a new way to park motor cars in a crowded city, the Group Chairman would describe the subject for discussion as 'storing things'. The session would probably start with a discussion on what 'storing' means. This, in turn, might lead to discourse upon the particular features desirable in a good storage system, considering features such as, for example, a minimum of low-cost space, ready availability when wanted, thief proofing etc. Next the discussion might turn to methods used for storing things in nature, in the home, aboard aircraft in ships, or in industry etc. At this stage, the Chairman, would narrow the problem by providing a rather more specific definition of the problem e.g. 'Storing things in restricted spaces'. Someone might thereupon mention how bees store their honey, or ants their food. Possibly this would provide the key idea to the undisclosed problem. Someone else might mention that an object consumes less space when stood on its end; that sausages and onions are sometimes stored in a suspended position to save space. At this point, the Chairman would redefine the problem as 'storing motor cars'. This may result in suggestions that a device be developed enabling cars to be parked on their noses rather than on four wheels.

New fields are opened up for discussion as the problem is gradually defined more exactly. Finally, when the Chairman senses that the group is close to providing a sound solution, he reveals the exact nature of the problem. The Group's competitive spirit is now keenly developed and is highly creative so that the principle behind the problems solution is immediately clear to them, and they begin to develop new ideas in detail.

For best results full attention must be given to the choice of the discussion group. Participants should be selected on the basis of their experience of the problem as defined in its very broadest sense. For example, if the problem were 'to invent something which fills a real need', the participants chosen to comprise the Group would probably include :

• a production specialist
• an artist with experience in electronics and industrial engineering
• a chemical engineer and sculptor
• a mechanical design engineer
• a private inventor with a knowledge of machine-shop practice
• a housewife.

Imagination-Undeveloped-Resource (IUR)

Two main criticisms of the Gordon Method of applied creativity are :

• an opportunity for an incubation of ideas is denied and
• an opportunity to re-structure the problem is scarcely available when only one member of the Group knows what the problem is.

The 'Imagination-Undeveloped-Resource' method of creative thinking compensates for this lack of a suitable incubation period by dividing the problem session into two parts.
Although generally following the same problem generalization procedures as those used in the 'Gordon Method', IUR differs in that:

• The Group Chairman does not disclose the actual problem until just before the end of the session.
• A second session is held a few days later.
• At the commencement of the second session a tape-recording of the previous session is played to the assembled group. The previous problem is then precisely stated and the group start to develop possible situations for use in solving it.

The 'Hypothetical Situation' method

Developed by Professor Arnold the purpose of this technique is two-fold:

• to free the user ol routine thinking habits and the ever-present influence of his environment,
• to stimulate the user's imagination to produce new ideas.

The method is simple to apply, and can be used either by an individual or a group. Although it can and must be regarded as a creative 'tool' in industry, it is more generally employed as a means of training designers and engineers to be more creative.
The method involves creating a hypothetical situation related to a particular area of activity, or interest. The individual, or group participants are then asked to produce ideas for solving the described situation.

For profitable results it is essential that the 'hypothetical situation' conforms to the following rules :

• It must be one that provides a means of freeing the individual from his present limitations.
• It should be made as unique as possible.

• Ensure that thelr ldeas for new designs or products are based on present sound engineering principles. No miracle substances, materials or perpetual motion devices should be considered.
• Assume that the conditions described in the given hypothetical situation actually exist, and make a determined effort to solve the problems within these conditions.

Some examples of the kind of hypothetical situation which could be used to stimulate a design engineer's imagination to produce profitable ideas are :

• In the year 2500, the motor car instrument panel will be so complicated that the information presented must make use of senses other than sight. Produce ideas for the design and selection of instruments with sound indications, vibration indications, etc.
• Assume that several manufacturers of machine tools and process equipment, now intend to produce ultrasonic equipment also. To get a firm foothold in the product manufacturers market, they are offering their newly produced ultrasonic equipment at a third of the cost of the equivalent conventional equipment. At the same time your own company, also a machine tool manufacturer, is planning a factory expansion of 100, 000 square feet, involving the purchase of necessary production equipment. Produce ideas involving the application of ultrasonics either to a new or existing product which will help combat this situation.
• Assume that the overseas markets for your Company's products have suddenly rocketed. To meet demands, your present production must be increased tenfold.
  Your company has no additional floor space available nor any sizeable quantity of manpower. Produce ideas for re-arranging existing processes, premises and labour that will increase your present productive output tenfold.
• Assume that the present materials used in the manufacture of your Company's product(s) are suddenly no longer available. Produce ideas for redesigning the product so that it can be made, say, wholly from plastics, aluminium or some other NEW material.

The 'Buzz' session

The Buzz session approach to profitable creative thinking was developed by J. Donald Phillips, President of Hillsdale College, Michigan, USA. It is an extension of the Brainstorming technique in that the large Brainstorming Group is divided into a series of small Groups each comprising 5 participants headed by a Chairman. The same problem is given to each Group and is Brainstormed for a period of 20-30 minutes, or longer if needed. Each Group then selects its best idea for presentation and final evaluation at a joint session of all the individual Groups.

The main objectives of the technique are :

• To get all possible ideas.
• To encourage maximum participation.
• To instruct large Groups of people at one time on the technique of Brainstorming and its possibilities.

• Participants are often more willing to speak within a small Group than as members of a large-sized assembly.
• It provides adequate time for each participant to state his ideas. In a large-size Brainstorming Group slower thinking, less forceful participants are robbed of the chance to state their ideas.

'Buzz' sessions can also be effectively used to develop questions in a 'question-and-answer' session after a lecture, talk or technical presentation.

Reverse brainstorming

Developed by the American Hotpoint Company, this technique works in the opposite way to Brainstorming inasmuch as the product, idea or problem statement is subjected to a barrage of ideas as to why and how they are inadequate. The object is for the Group to think up all possible limitations, shortcomings, and failings of a given product or idea so as to produce a series of new, previously undisclosed problems. These are then subjected to various creative problem-solving methods. The same Company profitably employs two other interesting brainstorming variants, which can be described as :

(a) The 'Waste Not' Method. The Group participants are shown a discarded product, or item of large-volume waste material (e.g. a small plastic container, the waste material from a particular machining or cold-pressing operation). The Group is then asked to Brainstorm for profitable uses.

(b) The 'And-Also' Method. A practical suggestion concerning a possible use, improvement or modification for a product is made. Each participant in the Group attempts to cap the previous suggestion with a better one of his own.

Slip writing

This method is more accurately described as Brainstorming limited to a single person. The individual applies the technique by:

• Formulating his or her own problem statement, and
• Writing down, or tape-recording, all the ideas on the problem that occur. As with other methods, the object is to produce a large number of ideas. The quality of each idea so produced is evaluated in a separate, later session.

FORCED RELATIONS TECHNIQUES

The underlying principle of 'Forced Relations' Techniques is to generate further ideas from the use of an established relationship between one product, idea or problem statement, and another. In most instances, the forced relationship is established arbitrarily - often by mechanical means. Among the methods used are:

A. Catalogue review method

Open a manufacturer's catalogue (or series of unrelated catalogues) or any other source of printed information, preferabIy illustrated. Select any item or subject, or even a single descrlptive word (noun and/or adjective) at random, without conscious effort. Now choose a second item, subject or word in the same arbitrary manner. Consider these elements together (i. e. force-fit their relationship) and attempt to create original ideas based upon the established forced relationship.

Example : Devise means to degrease a ship's launchways cheaply and quickly.

Background to problem: After a ship is launched the lubricant applied over the top surface of the launchways must be removed in readiness for the next launch. The combined effect of friction and weight tend to 'fire' the lubricant and impact it into the wooden launchways. The conventional method used to clean launch-ways involves a squad of 6 or 8 men systematically scraping the impacted grease from the launch-way with shovels and metal scrapers. This method is both costly and time-consuming.

Source for possible solution: Forced relationship between ship sliding down launchways and curved metal snow-dozer blade.

Ideas produced: Fit snow-dozer blade to bow of ship about to be launched so that blade curves towards stern of vessel and the blade edges slide on launchway. As ship travels down launchway, snow-dozer blade will simultaneously remove hard impacted grease cleanly from launchways thus eliminating necessity to clean launchways afterwards. (Note: Patent applied for by Author).

B. Systematic listing

List a number of objects, or ideas, all associated with a general subject. After the items have been listed, give each a number. Now consider each item in turn with the other items in various combinations, to produce possible new ideas.

Example: A manufacturer of office furniture might consider the following objects: a desk, chair, desk lamp, filing cabinet, bookcase. He would consider such combinations as chair and desk, chair and lamp, chair and filing cabinet, chair and bookcase, etc., as possible profitable new product ideas.

As with all other creative techniques, no attempt is made to judge any of the ideas produced until all possible ideas have been collected.

C. Focused object method

This method differs from the two methods previously described in that the particular elements in the forced relationship are preselected with a definite purpose in mind. To apply the 'Focused Object' method :

• Select the fixed element in the forced relationship. (This may be a product, an idea, or a problem statement.)
• Deliberately focus attention on some other element - usually something in the immediate vicinity. Once the fixed element and the element selected at random have been chosen, the forced, or unnatural, relationship has been established. This is now used as the basis for a flowing chain of 'free associations' from which are produced new and original ideas. Usually, the first ideas will come from a simple transfer of the attributes of the random to the fixed element.

Example : A furniture manufacturer might choose a chair as the 'fixed' element and an electric light bulb as the 'random' element. The initial idea suggested might be a glass chair, a thinner chair, bulb- shaped chair, screw-plug base construction, an electrically operated reclining chair, or a chair with a built-in reading light, etc. Usually the most profitable ideas evolve from the second-level ideas i.e. those developed from free association of the initial or first-level ideas.

D. Modification method

This is an individual operational technique which consists essentially of attempting to modify or twist a given idea in as many ways as possible so as to produce further idea variations. Usually a specific goal, consisting of a certain number of modifications is set. For some people it is helpful to specify a requirement of 30 or more modifications of one basic idea.

E. 'The Fresh Eye' method

An ordinary object is selected and examined with a large amount of concentration. All senses are applied to enable the familiar object to be seen in a 'fresh' light, and thus provide a source of new ideas. When using this method it is often helpful to feature the object against an unusual background

Problem 7.1
Suppose you were a manufacturer over-stocked with tooth-brushes. For what other uses (other than cleaning teeth) might you try to sell your surplus stock?

Problem 7.2
Large flocks of starlings annually create a public nuisance m many cities and towns. Suggest six, or more, possible solutions to this problem.